How did SOLAS Chapter XII address Bulk-Carrier losses in the early 1990s?

flowchart TD
    A["Loss of watertight integrity forward"] --> B["Flooding of foremost hold"]
    B --> C["Failure of bulkhead between holds 1 and 2"]
    C --> D["Progressive flooding and sudden loss"]
    D --> E["No detection or pumping from safe position"]
    E --> F["Overloading/uneven loading"]
    F --> G["Corrosion and age-related wastage"]
    G --> H["No structural redundancy"]
    H --> I["SOLAS XII: Strength and stability"]
    I --> J["SOLAS XII: Detection and pumping"]
    J --> K["SOLAS XII: Loading control"]
    K --> L["SOLAS XII: Survey and maintenance"]

• Trap: SOLAS XII is the only chapter for one ship type—bulk carriers.
• Key causes: single-side skin, high-density cargo, forward hold flooding, dynamic water effects, undetected ingress.
• SOLAS XII adds: damage stability, structural strength, bulkhead/double-bottom strengthening, water detection, pumping from enclosed space.
• Loading controls: density declaration, loading instrument, part-loaded hold prohibition.
• Survey: Enhanced Programme for age-related wastage.